Steel is one of the most important industries in the world. It is made by putting iron together with other metals and non-metals.

Toolmakers recommend cutting speeds for different types of workpiece materials. When a toolmaker suggests 100 sfm, it is indicating the outside surface of the rotating tool should travel at a rate of speed equal to 100 linear feet per minute. If the tool has a circumference (diameter × π) of 12", it would need to rotate at 100 rpm to achieve 100 sfm.

Milling cutter held by its shank that cuts on its periphery and, if so configured, on its free end. Takes a variety of shapes (single- and double-end, roughing, ballnose and cup-end) and sizes (stub, medium, long and extra-long). Also comes with differing numbers of flutes.

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Value that refers to how far the workpiece or cutter advances linearly in 1 minute, defined as: ipm = ipt 5 number of effective teeth 5 rpm. Also known as the table feed or machine feed.

Here is where things get interesting, because by changing the values in the formula, the relationships of the different variables become evident. Try applying a 2" tool instead of the 1" tool. What happens? The rpm and feed rate decrease by half.

Tangential velocity on the surface of the tool or workpiece at the cutting interface. The formula for cutting speed (sfm) is tool diameter 5 0.26 5 spindle speed (rpm). The formula for feed per tooth (fpt) is table feed (ipm)/number of flutes/spindle speed (rpm). The formula for spindle speed (rpm) is cutting speed (sfm) 5 3.82/tool diameter. The formula for table feed (ipm) is feed per tooth (ftp) 5 number of tool flutes 5 spindle speed (rpm).

Lathes are different, of course, because the workpiece rotates instead of the cutter. Because the formula for cutting speed is dependent on diameter, as the diameter of the workpiece decreases, rpm must increase to maintain a constant surface speed. After each circular cut on the lathe, the workpiece OD decreases or the ID increases, and it is necessary for the rpm of the part to increase to maintain the desired cutting speed. As a result, CNC manufacturers developed the constant surface footage feature for lathe controls. This feature allows the programmer to input the desired cutting speed in sfm or m/min. and the control calculates the proper rpm for the changing diameter.

Chip load recommendations for turning operations are most often given in thousandths of an inch per revolution, or feed per rev. This is the distance the tool advances each time the part com-pletes one rotation.

About the Author: Christopher Tate is senior advanced manufacturing engineering for Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp., Brookfield, Wis. He is based at the company’s manufacturing plant in Jackson, Miss. He has 19 years of experience in the metalworking industry and holds a Master of Science and Bachelor of Science from Mississippi State University. E-mail: chris23tate@gmail.com.

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Imagine the cutting tool as a rolling ring or cylinder. The distance traveled in one revolution times rpm is its surface speed. If the circle above had a diameter of 3.82", the circumference would be 12". As a result, every revolution would produce a linear distance of 1', and a spindle speed of 100 rpm would be a cutting speed of 100 sfm.

Alloy steel does have several drawbacks to consider: Higher cost : One of the main drawbacks of alloy steel is its higher cost compared to carbon steel. Reduced malleability :Alloy steel is generally less malleable than carbon steel, limiting its ability to be easily shaped or formed. Lower melting temperature :The melting temperature of alloy steel is lower than that of carbon steel, which can affect certain manufacturing processes. Processing challenges : Alloy steel can be more challenging to process compared to carbon steel due to its alloying elements and different properties. However, it is important to note that alloy steels offer excellent corrosion resistance compared to carbon steel.

Any manufacturing process in which metal is processed or machined such that the workpiece is given a new shape. Broadly defined, the term includes processes such as design and layout, heat-treating, material handling and inspection.

The mechanical industry relies heavily on steels, which are alloys formed by combining iron and carbon. However, to be classified as "alloy steel," additional elements must be present. Alloy steels were developed to enhance the metal's mechanical and physical properties, such as strength, workability, and corrosion resistance. They offer notable benefits, including improved corrosion resistance, increased hardenability, and superior strength in various mechanical applications. Steels are typically divided into two main categories: high alloy and low alloy. Generally, low alloy steels contain up to 8% alloying elements, while those exceeding 8% are classified as high alloy. This article provides insights into alloy steel, including its classification, compositions of high alloy and low alloy steels, manufacturing processes, and illustrative examples.

Cutting speed calculations might well be the most important ones. They are easy to use and, with a little explanation, easy to understand. The cutting speed of a tool is expressed in surface feet per minute (sfm) or surface meters per minute (m/min.). Similar to mph for a car, sfm is the linear distance a cutting tool travels per minute. To get a better sense of scale, 300 sfm, for example, converts to 3.4 mph.

What rpm and feed rate should be programmed for a 4-flute, 1" endmill, running at a recommended cutting speed of 350 sfm and a recommended chip load of 0.005 inch per tooth (ipt)? Using the equation, rpm = sfm ÷ diameter × 3.82 = 350 ÷ 1.0 × 3.82 = 1,337, the feed rate = rpm × no. of flutes × chip load = 1,337 × 4 × 0.005 = 26.74 ipm.

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Because the tool diameter is measured in inches, the “feet” in sfm must be converted to inches, and because there are 12 inches in a foot, multiply sfm by 12. In addition, the circumference of the tool is found by multiplying the tool diameter by π, or 3.14 to simplify. The result is: rpm = (sfm × 12) ÷ (diameter × π) = (sfm ÷ diameter) × (12 ÷ π) = (sfm ÷ diameter) × 3.82.

Cutting speeds are published in sfm because the ideal cutting speed for a particular family of tools will, in theory, be the same no matter the size of the tool. The engineer, programmer or machinist is expected to calculate the rpm needed to produce the proper cutting speed for each selected tool.

Angle between the side-cutting edge and the projected side of the tool shank or holder, which leads the cutting tool into the workpiece.

Alloy steel is a type of steel that is made by combining two or more different metals or elements to improve its properties.

The following equation is used to calculate spindle speed: rpm = sfm ÷ diameter × 3.82, where diameter is the cutting tool diameter or the part diameter on a lathe in inches, and 3.82 is a constant that comes from an algebraic simplifica-tion of the more complex formula: rpm = (sfm × 12) ÷ (diameter × π).

Surface feet per minute, chip load, undeformed chip thickness and chip thinning are familiar shop terms. Over the last few weeks, however, several occurrences in our shop have made me realize there are a lot of metalworking professionals who don’t understand these terms and the calculations that go along with them. Whether you work at a small job shop or a large contract manufacturer, it is important to understand cutting tool calculations and how to use them to help drive significant efficiency gains.

So what is this telling us? Let’s say a 1"-dia. tool must run at 100 sfm. Based on the equation, that tool must turn at 382 rpm to achieve 100 sfm: 100 ÷ 1 × 3.82 = 382.

Value that refers to how far the workpiece or cutter advances linearly in 1 minute, defined as: ipm = ipt 5 number of effective teeth 5 rpm. Also known as the table feed or machine feed.

Alloy steel is a specific type of steel that undergoes alloying with elements such as molybdenum, manganese, nickel, chromium, vanadium, silicon, and boron. These alloying elements are introduced to improve the steel's strength, hardness, wear resistance, and toughness. The amount of alloying metals can vary from 1% to 50%. Alloy steels are classified into two categories: low alloy steel and high alloy steel. The key distinction between them is typically a 5% content of alloying elements. In practical terms, low alloy steel is generally considered equivalent to alloy steel, particularly in the oil and gas sector.

Machining operation in which metal or other material is removed by applying power to a rotating cutter. In vertical milling, the cutting tool is mounted vertically on the spindle. In horizontal milling, the cutting tool is mounted horizontally, either directly on the spindle or on an arbor. Horizontal milling is further broken down into conventional milling, where the cutter rotates opposite the direction of feed, or “up” into the workpiece; and climb milling, where the cutter rotates in the direction of feed, or “down” into the workpiece. Milling operations include plane or surface milling, endmilling, facemilling, angle milling, form milling and profiling.

Understanding these relationships and applying some creative thought can provide significant gains in efficiency. I will discuss how to take advantage of these relationships in my next column. CTE

What is chip load? When milling, it is the amount of material that the cutting edge removes each time it rotates. When turning, it is the distance the part moves in one revolution while engaged with the tool. It is sometimes referred to as chip thickness, which is sort of true. Chip thickness can change when other parameters like radial DOC or the tool’s lead angle change.

Workpiece is held in a chuck, mounted on a face plate or secured between centers and rotated while a cutting tool, normally a single-point tool, is fed into it along its periphery or across its end or face. Takes the form of straight turning (cutting along the periphery of the workpiece); taper turning (creating a taper); step turning (turning different-size diameters on the same work); chamfering (beveling an edge or shoulder); facing (cutting on an end); turning threads (usually external but can be internal); roughing (high-volume metal removal); and finishing (final light cuts). Performed on lathes, turning centers, chucking machines, automatic screw machines and similar machines.

Alloy Steel Advantages Alloy steel offers several advantages over traditional carbon steel: Improved strength and durability :Alloy steel exhibits enhanced strength and durability, making it ideal for demanding tasks such as bridge construction or operating heavy machinery. Greater resilience :The presence of alloying elements in alloy steel enhances its resilience compared to standard carbon steel. It is more resistant to weather conditions, allowing for outdoor use without concerns about rust or damage caused by moisture and exposure to the elements. Ease of welding : Alloy steel is easier to weld compared to conventional carbon steel, simplifying fabrication processes and allowing for efficient joining of components.

The following is a compilation of commonly used alloying elements in steel, along with their associated advantages: Manganese :Widely utilized in steel, it reduces brittleness and the negative effects of sulphur, while enhancing hardenability and tensile strength. Nickel :Enhances corrosion resistance, toughness, and strength, while also improving low-temperature properties of steel. Chromium :Increases abrasion resistance, corrosion resistance, and hardenability. Additionally, it forms chromium carbides, contributing to steel's strength and hardness. Molybdenum : Improves hardenability, high-temperature strength, and resistance to wear. It also enhances the performance of other alloying elements. Vanadium :Boosts strength, hardness, and wear resistance in steel. It forms vanadium carbides, adding to the steel's strength and hardness.

Alloy steel is one of the most versatile steels available in the world. With a wide range of elemental properties and specifications.

Grooves and spaces in the body of a tool that permit chip removal from, and cutting-fluid application to, the point of cut.

Feed rate for milling is usually expressed in inches per minute (ipm) and calculated using: ipm = rpm × no. of flutes × chip load.

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Large diameter Cope and Stick Cutters, Raised Panel Cutters with replaceable carbide inserts.

Turning machine capable of sawing, milling, grinding, gear-cutting, drilling, reaming, boring, threading, facing, chamfering, grooving, knurling, spinning, parting, necking, taper-cutting, and cam- and eccentric-cutting, as well as step- and straight-turning. Comes in a variety of forms, ranging from manual to semiautomatic to fully automatic, with major types being engine lathes, turning and contouring lathes, turret lathes and numerical-control lathes. The engine lathe consists of a headstock and spindle, tailstock, bed, carriage (complete with apron) and cross slides. Features include gear- (speed) and feed-selector levers, toolpost, compound rest, lead screw and reversing lead screw, threading dial and rapid-traverse lever. Special lathe types include through-the-spindle, camshaft and crankshaft, brake drum and rotor, spinning and gun-barrel machines. Toolroom and bench lathes are used for precision work; the former for tool-and-die work and similar tasks, the latter for small workpieces (instruments, watches), normally without a power feed. Models are typically designated according to their “swing,” or the largest-diameter workpiece that can be rotated; bed length, or the distance between centers; and horsepower generated. See turning machine.

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Microprocessor-based controller dedicated to a machine tool that permits the creation or modification of parts. Programmed numerical control activates the machine’s servos and spindle drives and controls the various machining operations. See DNC, direct numerical control; NC, numerical control.

Manufacturing alloy steel involves employing methods that incorporate alloying elements such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, and others. Depending on the specific type and grade of steel required, diverse processes are utilized in the production of alloy steel. Some commonly employed processes include: Several methods are employed in the manufacturing of alloy steel, each with its unique process and feedstock requirements: Electric arc furnace (EAF) process :The primary feed material, either scrap steel or direct reduced iron (DRI), is melted in an electric furnace. Alloying elements are introduced to the molten steel through oxygen blowing or vacuum degassing, followed by refining . The steel is then shaped into slabs, ingots, blooms, billets, or other desired forms. Basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS) process :The main feedstock consists of liquid pig iron from the blast furnace and scrap steel. Oxygen is blown into a converter, oxidizing impurities. Alloying elements are introduced and the molten steel is refined through vacuum degassing or ladle metallurgy. The steel is then formed into slabs, ingots, blooms, billets, or other shapes. Electric induction furnace (EIF) process :Waste steel is melted in an induction furnace using electromagnetic induction. After introducing alloying elements, the molten steel undergoes refining through ladle metallurgy. The steel is then shaped into slabs, ingots, blooms, billets, or other desired forms. Crucible process : Ferroalloys, steel scrap, and wrought iron are melted in an airtight crucible, using charcoal as the fuel source. The composition of the feed substance determines the carbon and alloying element content. The molten steel is then formed into ingots. Bessemer process : Pig iron is used as the primary feedstock, and air is blown into a pear-shaped converter to oxidize impurities. Alloying elements and carbon content can be controlled by adding ferromanganese or spiegeleisen (manganese-rich pig iron) to the molten steel. After melting, the steel is shaped into ingots. Open hearth process : Pig iron and waste steel are melted in a shallow hearth using gas or oil as fuel. The addition of limestone, iron ore, and other materials helps regulate the alloying and carbon content in the molten steel. The steel is then formed into ingots.

Alloy steel encompasses various types, including: Nickel Steel :This alloy steel has a high nickel content, offering exceptional strength and toughness. Manganese Steel :This alloy steel contains a significant amount of manganese, providing high impact strength and wear resistance. Chromium-Molybdenum Steel :This alloy steel incorporates chromium and molybdenum, delivering excellent strength and corrosion resistance. These examples highlight the diversity of alloy steels, with numerous other types available, each possessing distinct compositions and properties.

While the tool or part is spinning, the machine must know how fast to travel while the cutter is engaged in the workpiece. Feed rate is the term that describes the traverse rate while cutting.

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Toolmakers publish chip load recommendations along with cutting speed recommendations and express them in thousandths of an inch (millimeter for metric units). For milling and drilling operations, chip load is expressed in thousandths of an inch per flute. Flutes, teeth and cutting edges all describe the same thing and there must be at least one, but, in theory, there is no limit to the number a tool can have.

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Another way to consider this concept is to think about the distance the 1" tool would travel were it to make 382 revolutions across the shop floor. In that scenario, it would travel 100'; do it in 60 seconds and it would be traveling 100 sfm.

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Based on their chemical composition, steels can be categorized into three main groups: carbon steels, low-alloy steels and high-alloy steels . Alloying elements commonly found in steels include manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon, and boron. During the steelmaking process, trace contaminants such as phosphorus, sulfur, manganese, silicon, and aluminum may be present due to their uptake from the blast furnace and deoxidation process in the ladle. Additionally, the use of scrap in steelmaking can introduce residuals like copper and other metals. Although these substances are not considered alloys, they typically constitute less than 1% of the overall steel composition.

Notice the vertical lines, called tool marks, on the outside of the part being turned. As the feed rate increases, the distance between the lines also increases. The chip thickness is roughly equal to the feed.