Steel slitting is a procedure designed to cut a broad master coil into narrower strands with consistent measurements. Manufacturers feed the large stainless steel through a machine known as a slitter, and then the resulting strands are recoiled into a finished coil. It's worth noting that the machine's knives can leave a burr on the slit edge.

There are many types of end profile – right angle, bull-nose, ball and v-cut. Given we want sharp profiles and pockets, a square bit makes sense. Perhaps there’s another tool we could use for a better finishing operation but I suspect a square bit is more than good enough.

Cold working is economically efficient as it does not generate scrap metal, which is often a byproduct of other processes. Unlike hot working, cold working does not require soaking pits and furnaces, further contributing to its cost-effectiveness.

In any case, we have 3 constraints5 and a linear formula. This seems like something suited to linear programming. There are python libraries with implementations of LP solvers – SciPy and PuLP; perhaps I will make one later.

The cold working process does not involve significant recovery. Instead, it results in the accumulation of internal and residual stresses within the metal. Additionally, there is a potential for cracks or pores in the metal to propagate, and new cracks may form during this cold working process. Notably, the strengthening in this process occurs without the utilization of heat.

It’s also not necessary to obsess over finding the exact optimal feeds/speeds and CAM strategies. Good enough is good enough for DIY use.

Feed rate cncformula

Anecdotally, I’ve heard of several people attempting to approach their first cut “conservatively” but ending up with a burned tool. Rational thinking may conclude that cutting with a low feed rate (the linear speed at which the tool moves) would be safe; whilst it’s true this will reduce the load on the machine’s gantry, it can result in the inability to dissipate the heat as the shavings are too small – dust – so the tool burns.

If we choose MDF, we’d need a higher chip load so would probably want to be in the lower RPM range. For plywood, the higher end.

Ibtisam graduated from the Institute of Space Technology, Islamabad with a B.S. in Aerospace Engineering. During his academic career, he has worked on several research projects and has successfully managed several co-curricular events such as the International World Space Week and the International Conference on Aerospace Engineering. Having won an English prose competition during his undergraduate degree, Ibtisam has always been keenly interested in research, writing, and editing. Soon after his graduation, he joined AzoNetwork as a freelancer to sharpen his skills. Ibtisam loves to travel, especially visiting the countryside. He has always been a sports fan and loves to watch tennis, soccer, and cricket. Born in Pakistan, Ibtisam one day hopes to travel all over the world.

I suppose finishing operations, by definition, aren’t removing much material – low WOD and DOC. Increasing feed rate to compensate is probably necessary.

12,000 RPM will probably not result in the max. torque for the spindle, and I have no idea how the machine will handle the 1400 mm/min feed rate.

American Galvanizers Association, (2023). Cold Worked Steels. [Online] Available at: https://galvanizeit.org/design-and-fabrication/design-considerations/cold-worked-steels

Abbasi, Ibtisam. (2023, December 19). Cold Work vs Hot Work in Steel: Understanding the Differences. AZoM. Retrieved on November 10, 2024 from https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=23260.

One approach to optimise the feed rate is to increase until the finish or performance is too rough (i.e. visible chattering) then reduce by 10%.

As a rule of thumb, the maximum usable feed rate may be half of what the machine is capable of. This is because stepper motors have a negative torque curve – more speed, less torque. Half the max feed rate is a good place to start. Bear in mind that the machine won’t cut as fast as the set feed rate all the time – only on straight edges; detail will be slower.

We’re trying an up-cut bit for my speaker design which is predominately a 3D-profiling operation meaning the cutter will spend most of the finish on the top surface. This could result in a poor finish as a result, but it’s using readily available bits and minimal cost. If a more exotic bit is needed, so be it – we didn’t want to prematurely optimise.

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Hot working is well-suited for bulk production tasks. The material's elevated temperature provides increased ductility, allowing for unrestricted hot-working of the metal. The higher temperature reduces shear stress, requiring significantly less force for the necessary deformation. Moreover, hot working effectively eliminates various imperfections caused by gas pores and composition differences in the material.

Bending methods are preferred for the shaping of steel alloys. Shearing involves splitting the steel sheets into different strips.

I won’t go into detail about chip thinning here, however here’s a useful article/calculator to get you started if you’re interested: https://www.machiningdoctor.com/calculators/chip-thinning-calculator/.

Further down that rabbit hole, I discovered the theory of chip thinning. If the width of cut is less than D/2, the chip load equation does not apply and the technical chip load must be increased. Other end profiles such as ball-nose also cause chip-thinning.

Yes, if your drill press is reasonably rigid, this can work. Do NOT attempt this unless the work is clamped down tight, just as you would in a milling machine.

Note that the chart has a chip-load range. I presume the optimal settings are somewhere within that range for a given material/tool – perhaps the tool will perform OK anywhere within that range, I don’t know, but we should choose feed/speed values such that we can explore the whole chip-load range without exceeding the limits of the machine.

If you’re not a DIY user, you may want to look at the research around HSM (high-speed machining) – this is optimising for MRR (material removal rate). The calculator I mentioned has a new, beta version specifically for HSM.

Chip load is extremely important when dealing with CNC routing. The calculations are easy, if counter-intuitive; they serve as a starting point; rely on practice to achieve optimal settings.

A friend has his own CNC router; he built it himself in 2009 and has been upgrading it ever since – though it’s been a while since it was last used. I’m helping get it running again, and help improve it further to cut a pair of speakers I’ve designed.

What can seem counter-intuitive: increasing the feed rate can decrease heat and extend tool life. This is because the chip load is greater, so more heat is removed. So really, you might want as high feed rate as possible with a compensated spindle speed – in reality, you’re up against the limits of the machine and tool. The tool will have a maximum specified deflection before snapping, and the stepper motors that move the gantry3 will have a maximum practical feed rate.

20241026 — In CNC machining, the feed rate determines how much material is removed with each pass of the cutting tool, directly affecting the depth of cut ...

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CNCRouter feeds and speeds calculator

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There are straight end-mills (commonly used with hand routers) up-cut, down-cut and compression-cut. Each is a compromise. Here’s a summary:

Depth of cut and diameter of tool don’t technically affect chip load – chip load is one dimensional. Of course the chips would be bigger if either is increased, just not longer. However – generally larger the diameter of the tool, the greater the rated target chip load – meaning you will have to increase feed rate or decease RPM. See my later section on this.

Generally, tools have one to three flutes. Based on the chip load formula, you need proportionally more feed rate for a given RPM, or less RPM for a given feed rate. If the feed rate, mechanical strength or stepper torque is a limiting factor, you (maybe I) may want to consider using a single fluted tool.

The basic equation does not take into the effects of varying the depth of cut, nor the width of cut. Mostly, it’s not even mentioned in guides or the calculators out there.

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Also, perhaps we should choose values that allow for some reduction in feed rate (and chip thinning) that will occur with some geometries. Note that some adaptive CAM milling tool-paths will compensate such that the chip load remains more-or-less constant.

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Abbasi, Ibtisam. "Cold Work vs Hot Work in Steel: Understanding the Differences". AZoM. 10 November 2024. .

Yu et. al. (2019). Mechanical properties of hot-rolled and cold-formed steels after exposure to elevated temperature: A review. Construction and Building Materials. 213. 360-376. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.04.062

Probably nothing. The in-practice alterations to feeds/speeds will likely get you to a good enough setting. It’s worth bearing mind that the feed rate should likely be increased if the WOD/DOC is reduced significantly.

Metallurgy For Dummies, (2023). Metal Hot Working Process. [Online] Available at: https://www.metallurgyfordummies.com/metal-hot-working-process.html#:~:text=Steel%20is%20typically%20hot%20worked,workpiece%20is%20converted%20into%20heat.

The first cut we made “worked,” but ruined the tool! Our rough guess of speeds was clearly lacking. We therefore had to do some research to understand the problem; I figured I may as well put that information in a blog post.

Cold-worked steel components are frequently employed in industries such as aerospace and automobile industry. Several essential processes and equipment for medical applications incorporate cold-worked steel, such as pacemaker stamping and hypodermic needles. Cold-work steel is used to manufacture rivets, gaskets, and shielding.

The formula serves as a starting point. In real life tools, machines and material are imperfect. The best way is to see what happens in practice, and iterate to the optimal settings based on sound, vision (chips) smell and finish.

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For inexpensive DIY CAM software, optimisation may be primitive but that’s fine. Saving 10% on machine time or tool life is irrelevant.

There are four common and famous types of cold working processes, including squeezing, bending, shearing, and drawing. Squeezing includes several methods, such as rolling, extrusion, and cold forging.

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Feed rateformula

Hot working involves processes in which metals are plastically deformed at temperatures above their recrystallization temperature. Operating above the recrystallization temperature enables the material to undergo recrystallization during deformation. This is crucial as recrystallization prevents strain hardening, thereby maintaining low yield strength and hardness while preserving high ductility.

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Something to consider is how much of its rated power a CNC machine is able to use. Given the torque curves above, an VFD induction+stepper machine is at its weakest when at max feed rate and lowest spindle speed.

Feed rate cncrouter

Hot rolling is a conventional working process utilized for various purposes. In this process, steel undergoes passage through a pair of rollers moving in opposite directions but with the same speed. This action flattens, lengthens, and reduces the cross-sectional area of the steel, resulting in uniform thickness.

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Feed rate cnctable

I had assumed, based on the equation that it did not matter. It was only when I studied the excel formula in the spreadsheet in a video by Eric of Fabber6. To my surprise, it wasn’t using the chip load formula I was familiar with; instead, the chip load was reported to be proportional to the DOC over the tool diameter.

Kumar, A., (2021). Hot Working: Definition, Methods, Working Process, Advantages, Disadvantages, Application. [Online] Available at: https://themechanicalengineering.com/hot-working/

Hot-rolled steels demonstrate improved ductility under air cooling conditions, while ductility reduction is observed when water-cooled from elevated temperatures. In contrast, the post-fire ductility values of cold-formed steels consistently exhibit improvements.

Mar 27, 2021 — Abstract. The Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT) is a phenomenon that is widely observed in metals. Below critical temperature ( ...

What follows is part of a series of posts around making things with a CNC machine; I was compiling notes to understand everything required, and thought I might as well blog the notes.

CNCspeeds and feeds calculator

Cold-rolled steel is put under severe stress. Strain hardening occurs during this process, which can increase the hardness by about 20 percent compared to its original state. Another common process is cold forging, which involves placing the steel or targeted metal between two dies, followed by pounding the dies. This leads to the targeted metal acquiring the shape of the die.

The process of cold working involves the strengthening of steel material by physically manipulating the material below the recrystallization temperature. The recrystallization temperature is defined as the temperature at which new defect-free crystalline grains replace the original ones present in the material.

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As a DIY user, optimisation doesn’t matter quite as much as on a production line. We’re only ever making a handful of items for a given design; in a commercial setting optimisation for cycle time is most important. It could mean using more expensive bits, even deliberately wearing them faster.

I filled in the calculator to compare my values. Here’s the calculation, – the result was around 13,000 RPM at 1200 mm/min. Close to my conclusion!

Feed rateand plungeratecalculator

In the mean time, we can got somewhere close by hand, or use various apps/web calculators. One that stood out to me was brturn’s optimising feeds and speeds calculator – I bet it uses linear programming.

Abbasi, Ibtisam. 2023. Cold Work vs Hot Work in Steel: Understanding the Differences. AZoM, viewed 10 November 2024, https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=23260.

Madhu, (2019). Difference Between Hot Working and Cold Working. [Online] Available at: https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-hot-working-and-vs-cold-working/

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In both hot-rolled and cold-formed steels, the elastic modulus remains largely unchanged following exposure to fire. When air-cooled, hot-rolled steels exhibit reductions in yield strength and ultimate strength after heating beyond 600°C. Conversely, cold-formed steels show early strength reduction, commencing from heating to 300°C.

The tool should not scream in the straights, for instance. Nor should it blacken anything, or smell like burning. If that happens, increase feed rate or decrease RPM. The DOC may also be varied.

... high temperatures, so it is suitable for hard metals like stainless steel ... Cobalt 5%Fully ground HSS drill bit 5% cobalt HSS-E pack 5 or 10. Référence ...

This begs the question: what specific value of chip load do we want? Most non-cheap cutters come with a data-sheet specifying the range of chip load at a rated RPM range. However, cheap tools don’t. Therefore a rule of thumb is required. Here is a table with some rough values, courtesy of machiningdoctor.com:

Garcia, A., (2023). Hot Working and Cold Working; Its Advantages, Disadvantages. [Online] Available at: https://mechathon.com/hot-working-and-cold-working/

2022420 — Carbide drill bits are not suitable for hand tools such as impact drills or cordless drills but are generally ideal for high-production drilling ...

In addition to increasing the strength of metal, cold rolling also contributes to smoother surfaces. Cold-rolled steel can be as high as ten times smoother than hot-rolled steel in terms of roughness height, which measures surface irregularities. This attribute positions cold working as a preferred method for producing the smooth metal surfaces commonly found in consumer goods.

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PMPA, (2023). 5 Benefits of Cold Work in Steels. [Online] Available at: https://www.pmpa.org/5-benefits-of-cold-work-in-steels/

Abbasi, Ibtisam. "Cold Work vs Hot Work in Steel: Understanding the Differences". AZoM. https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=23260. (accessed November 10, 2024).

[..] However, increasing the depth of cut to twice the tool diameter results in a roughly 25% decrease in the optimal chip load for that process.

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This means that if the DOC goes up, the target chosen chip load must go down. Another approach is to define “effective chip load” where we try and find the chip load for a constant DOC (at D). That’s what I think Eric’s formula is doing. It might explain why some people have reported more luck with his calculator vs others.

We decided on a 2-flute 6mm straight up-cut bit for roughing. Here’s the first, untested RPM calculation based on a guess at the CNC machine’s max speed and a middling chip-load from the table:

Steel is commonly hot worked at temperatures around 1300°F (700°C), involving the shaping of metal close to its molten state. In any hot working process, the critical factor is the temperature control of the workpiece, as approximately 90% of the energy applied to the workpiece transforms into heat.

That’s just under the maximum theoretical speed of the router. The right ball pack. What about the higher range of chip load?

In an article published in Construction and Building Materials, researchers compared the residual mechanical properties of hot and cold worked steel at high temperatures such as fire conditions.

We’re now making test cuts, so we have to pick the right speeds (spindle RPM) and feeds (gantry movement, mm/min) for various material and cutter combinations.

In the fields of metallurgy and materials science, experts are always aiming towards better products with enhanced physical and chemical properties. This is usually done by performing specialized processes under specified conditions. Cold-working and hot-working different types of steel products are useful in augmenting their properties.

Hot forging holds significant commercial importance, finding widespread use in various industries for the production of diverse products. It entails shaping metal through localized compressive forces, involving heating, deforming, and shaping the metal piece. These forces are applied through a manual hammer or hammer machine and die. Hot forging is particularly valuable in the manufacturing of industrial components such as crane hooks, cranks, crankshafts, and wrenches.

The structural integrity and redundancy in the design of steel buildings may prevent their collapse in the event of a fire hazard. Consequently, the residual mechanical properties of steel materials become crucial indicators for assessing the post-fire performance of the overall structure and the potential reuse of steel members.

Feed rate cncchart

Both hot-working and cold-working for steel have their distinct advantages. These methods are employed for various industrial processes. However, the choice of any particular process depends on the intended application and the desired properties.

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Warning: I’ve written this all after trying a single cut. I will update the article with more practical experience in due course.

Ideal – 1400 mm/min will allow us to vary the RPM from 12,000 to 23,000 RPM in theory moving over the whole chip load range without hitting constraints.

I like to have an intuitive understanding of the variables before thinking about a formula, so before I cover the equation I made this table:

Optimising chip load is the key to clean cuts and optimal tool life. The chip load should be the right size for a given situation – not dust but shavings; this is because the shavings can carry heat away from the tool – there’s a lot of heat generated due to the friction; hundreds1 of watts need to be dissipated without heating up the tool.