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Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) is a vacuum coating process that involves transforming a material from a condensed solid phase to a vapor phase and then back to a condensed, thin film phase. PVD is the physical process of vaporizing the material, transporting it, and then allowing it to condense and form a thin film on the target substrate (the material to be coated). Below, we discuss details and types of the physical vapor deposition process.

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Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) is often utilized in the back-end-of-line processes, especially for the copper damascene method. During this intricate procedure, a structure initially undergoes a diffusion barrier etch. Subsequently, a via dielectric is meticulously deposited. An etching process follows, creating a gap where the lines and vias take shape. The subsequent phase involves depositing a thin barrier layer of tantalum (Ta) and tantalum nitride (TaN) materials via PVD. Ta is primarily used to form the liner, while TaN acts as the barrier in the structure. This barrier layer is then coated with a copper (Cu) seed barrier using PVD. The final steps include electroplating the structure with copper and employing Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP) to achieve a smooth, flat surface.

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Reactive Sputtering: Involves introducing a reactive gas, leading to the formation of compounds (e.g., nitrides, oxides) on the substrate.

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Sputtering involves bombarding a material, known as the target, with high-energy ions (often argon ions). These ions displace atoms from the target, which then travel through the vacuum and deposit onto the substrate.

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Transport and Deposition: The vaporized atoms or molecules travel across the vacuum chamber and condense on the substrate, forming a thin film.

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This method is applicable to all types of water having a saline load less than 1 g·l−1. A dilution of the sample is possible to obtain a solution having a saline load and activity concentrations compatible with the preparation and the measurement assembly.

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A highly controlled method where material is evaporated in a vacuum and deposited on a substrate in an atom-by-atom fashion.

Due to its relatively short half-life and 238U isobaric interference, 238Pu can hardly be measured by this method. To quantify this isotope, other techniques can be used (ICP-MS with collision-reaction cell, ICP-MS/MS with collision-reaction cell or chemical separation). Alpha spectrometry measurement, as described in ISO 13167[10], is currently used[11].

Arc Vapor Deposition is a process that utilizes an electric arc to vaporize material from a cathodic target. The vaporized material then forms a plasma, allowing it to coat the substrate.

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The PVD process typically unfolds in a vacuum chamber to avoid contamination and ensure a high-quality coating. A critical aspect of PVD is that the initial precursor material is in a solid form, contrasting with chemical vapor deposition. Below is a simplified step-by-step breakdown of the process:

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PVD techniques offer distinct advantages such as good adhesion, uniform coatings, high deposition rates, and precise control, but also come with drawbacks like slow deposition, expensive equipment, and complexity.

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Applications: Useful in producing high-quality thin films for superconductors, ferroelectric materials, and multilayer structures in electronics.

This document specifies methods used to determine the concentration of plutonium and neptunium isotopes in water by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) (239Pu, 240Pu, 241Pu and 237Np). The concentrations obtained can be converted into activity concentrations of the different isotopes[9]. Due to its relatively short half-life and 238U isobaric interference, 238Pu can hardly be measured by this method. To quantify this isotope, other techniques can be used (ICP-MS with collision-reaction cell, ICP-MS/MS with collision-reaction cell or chemical separation). Alpha spectrometry measurement, as described in ISO 13167[10], is currently used[11]. This method is applicable to all types of water having a saline load less than 1 g·l−1. A dilution of the sample is possible to obtain a solution having a saline load and activity concentrations compatible with the preparation and the measurement assembly. A filtration at 0,45 μm is needed for determination of dissolved nuclides. Acidification and chemical separation of the sample are always needed. The limit of quantification depends on the chemical separation and the performance of the measurement device. This method covers the measurement of those isotopes in water in activity concentrations between around[12][13]: — 1 mBq·l−1 to 5 Bq·l−1 for 239Pu, 240Pu and 237Np; — 1 Bq·l−1 to 5 Bq·l−1 for 241Pu. In both cases, samples with higher activity concentrations than 5 Bq·l−1 can be measured if a dilution is performed before the chemical separation. It is possible to measure 241Pu following a pre-concentration step of at least 1 000.

PVD is crucial in semiconductor manufacturing for depositing conductive, barrier, and metallization layers, ensuring electrical performance and reliability.

Material Vaporization: The coating material, often a target or source material, is vaporized using various methods (some discussed further below). This can involve physical means such as sputtering or thermal evaporation.

Applications: Used for tool coatings (like drills and milling cutters), corrosion-resistant coatings, and in some biomedical applications.

In both cases, samples with higher activity concentrations than 5 Bq·l−1 can be measured if a dilution is performed before the chemical separation.

Thermal Evaporation is a technique that uses heat to evaporate the source material. The evaporated atoms or molecules travel through the vacuum and condense on the substrate.

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A filtration at 0,45 μm is needed for determination of dissolved nuclides. Acidification and chemical separation of the sample are always needed.

PVD applies various thin-film layers that are foundational to IC functionality. In semiconductor fabrication, PVD is commonly used to deposit conductive layers, such as aluminum or copper, as pathways for electronic signals. Additionally, it creates barrier layers that prevent metal diffusion into silicon and to deposit the metallization layers for interconnections within the chip. The uniformity and control PVD offers are critical for ensuring electrical performance and reliability, especially as chip geometries continue to shrink. In packaging, PVD aids in the creation of under-bump metallization, a key step in forming connections between the silicon die and the package substrate. PVD is also used in the planarization process in semiconductor manufacturing.

Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) encompasses various techniques, each with unique applications and properties, including sputtering, thermal evaporation, electron beam evaporation, pulsed laser deposition, cathodic arc deposition, magnetron sputtering, molecular beam epitaxy, and others.

Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) involves using high-power laser pulses to ablate material from a target. The ablated material forms a plasma plume that deposits on the substrate.

This document specifies methods used to determine the concentration of plutonium and neptunium isotopes in water by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) (239Pu, 240Pu, 241Pu and 237Np). The concentrations obtained can be converted into activity concentrations of the different isotopes[9].