The R-phase was observed during the 1970s but generally was not correctly identified until Ling and Kaplow's landmark paper of 1981.[1] The crystallography and thermodynamics of the R-phase are now well understood, but it still creates many complexities in device engineering. According to awell-worn phrase, "It must be the R-phase" whenever a device fails to perform as expected.

The R-phase becomes more pronounced through additions of iron, cobalt, and chromium, and is suppressed by additions of copper, platinum and palladium. Cold working and aging also tend to exaggerate the R-phase presence.

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Martensitevs austenite

While the R-phase transformation is a first order transformation and the R-phase is distinct and separate from martensite and austenite, it is followed by a second order transformation: a gradual shrinking of the rhombohedral angle and concomitant increased transformational strain. By suppressing martensite formation and allowing the second order transformation to continue, the transformational strain can be maximized. Such measures have shown memory and superelastic effects of nearly 1%.[3] In commercially available superelastic alloys, however, the R-phase transformational strain is only 0.25 to 0.5%.

The R-phase can be stress-induced as well as thermally-induced. The stress rate (Clausius–Clapeyron relation, d σ d T {\displaystyle {\frac {d\sigma }{dT}}} ) is very large compared to the austenite–martensite transformation (very large stresses are required to drive the transformation).

Before proceeding with the types and operations performed on a milling machine, it is vital to understand what it is. A milling machine is the most popular and preferred equipment for shaping solid materials, including wood or metal. It has a cutting tool that helps machine workpieces of almost any shape or size. The machine features different parts in conjunction with one another. The list includes base, column, knee, saddle, spindle, table, overhanging arm, elevating screws, arbor, and so on.

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Martensitestructure

Primarily, milling machines are categorized into two types – vertical and horizontal milling machines. Further, they are classified as ram-type, knee-type, planer-type, and manufacturing or bed-type milling machines. All milling machines classified above feature an electric motor, variable spindle speeds, power-operated table, and coolant systems.

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Martensiteformula

This type of milling machine features ram on the top of the column, thus called a ram-type milling machine. The ram can slide forward and backward to shift the cutter position quickly.

The R-phase to austenite transformation (A-R) is reversible, with a very small hysteresis (typically 2–5 °C (36–41 °F)). It also exhibits a very small shape memory effect, and within a very narrow temperature range, superelasticity. The R-phase transformation (from austenite) occurs between 20 and 40 °C (68 and 104 °F) in most binary nitinol alloys.

This type of milling machine features a knee-like projection in the middle. A knee-type milling machine is characterized by a vertically adjustable table that rests on a saddle supported by a knee. Owing to their flexibility and versatility, knee mills have become the first choice for prototyping, tooling and fixture work, and many more tasks.

While an essentially hysteresis-free shape memory effect sounds exciting, the strains produced by the austenite-R transformation are too small for most applications. Because of the very small hysteresis, and the tremendous cyclic stability of the A-R transformation, some effort has been made to commercialize thermal actuators based on the effect.[4] Such applications have been of limited success at best. For most of Nitinol applications, the R-phase is an annoyance and engineers try to suppress its appearance. Some of the difficulties it induces are as follows:

Martensite phaseexample

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Martensitemicrostructure

The R-phase is a phase found in nitinol, a shape-memory alloy. It is a martensitic phase in nature, but is not the martensite that is responsible for the shape memory and superelastic effect.

Many sectors in the manufacturing industry heavily rely on fabricated parts and components to make the final product. CNC machining is widely used for this and various techniques are used to achieve different shapes, sizes, and dimensions. These include milling, cutting, and forming, and so on. There are CNC machines exclusively for milling, while there are others where multiple tasks can be performed in a single machine. Among these machines and equipment used in the industry, the milling machine has gained traction. A milling machine is used during the metal cutting process for producing parts of various shapes and sizes. Are you intrigued to know the details of milling machines and their types? If so, then read the following post which answers these questions and more. So, stay tuned.

Martensite phasediagram

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How ismartensiteformed

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Martensite phaseformula

This is the most common type of milling machine. As the name suggests, the horizontal milling machine features a horizontally oriented spindle that holds as well as rotates the cutting tool against the stationary workpiece. With shorter and thicker cutting tools, the horizontal milling machine can perform heavier and deeper cuts. Therefore, several manufacturing companies often use them to cut slots or grooves into workpieces.

Milling machines are a great boon for manufacturing units that need quickly fabricated parts and prototypes. Therefore, it is crucial to avail milling services from an industry expert to get precise machine parts. BDE Manufacturing Technologies is one such experienced machining and fabrication service provider in the USA. With years of vast experience and well-equipped milling machines, the company specializes in offering machining services and capabilities such as boring, reaming, knurling, and more.

The R-phase is essentially a rhombohedral distortion of the cubic austenite phase. Figure 1 shows the general structure, though there are shifts in atomic position that repeat after every three austenitic cells. Thus the actual unit cell of the actual R-phase structure is shown in Figure 2.[2] The R-phase can be easily detected via x-ray diffraction or neutron diffraction, most clearly evidenced by a splitting of the (1 1 0) austenitic peak.

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In connection with nitinol, "martensite" normally refers to the B19' monoclinic martensite phase, rather than the R-phase. The R-phase competes with martensite, is often completely absent, and often appears during cooling before martensite, then giving way to it upon further cooling. In the same way, it can be observed during heating prior to reversion to austenite, or may be completely absent.

Vertical milling machines mount the cutting tool on a vertically oriented spindle that removes materials from the stationary workpiece. Vertical milling machines differ from horizontal milling machines in several ways. The biggest difference is the length and size of cutting tools. Unlike horizontal, vertical milling machines have long and thin cutting tools, making them a smart investment for several manufacturing companies.