PVD coatings are applied in self-contained systems of different sizes. In the PVD process, a high-purity, solid coating material (metals such as titanium, chromium, and aluminum) is either evaporated by heat (arc evaporation) or by bombardment with ions (sputtering). At the same time, a reactive gas (e.g., nitrogen or carbon-containing gas) is added. The gas forms a compound with the metal vapor, which is then deposited on the tools or components as a thin, highly adherent coating. The process is carried out under high vacuum and, in most cases, at temperatures between 150 and 500 °C. A uniform coating thickness is obtained by rotating the parts at a constant speed around several axes.

Precision components in vehicles, aircrafts, machines, medical technology, semiconductor technology, power generation and in many other devices are coated with PVD coatings to enable them to function more reliably, powerfully, and efficiently. The result is a reduction in friction and an increase in service life, which contributes to sustainability.

This research has practical implications for industries relying on EN353 steel, as it enhances understanding and control of microstructural changes to improve mechanical properties for various applications, such as gear manufacturing.

Khan, Taha. (2024, February 26). Microstructural Changes in Steel Under Various Heat Treatments. AZoM. Retrieved on November 22, 2024 from https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=23443.

The primary distinction between graphene-based batteries and solid-state batteries lies in the composition of either electrode. Although the cathode is commonly changed, carbon allotropes can also be employed in fabricating anodes.

In another 2023 study, researchers investigated the impact of heat treatment on the microstructure of high-vanadium (V) content quenched and tempered (Q&T) steel. They analyzed proto-austenite grains at different quenching temperatures utilizing metallographic and scanning electron microscopes and studied the precipitation behavior and matrix microstructure characteristics during tempering.

The study addressed the challenges of achieving a fine pearlitic microstructure through normalizing alone, highlighting the necessity of combining isothermal heat treatment for optimal results.

PVD coatings improve the performance and durability of precision components in almost any industrial and consumer good and extend the life of tools used in the metal and plastics processing industries.

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Another heat treatment process similar to annealing is normalizing, which involves air cooling instead of controlled furnace cooling.

Results indicated that heat treatments influenced grain size, yielding altered mechanical properties. Annealing led to increased grain size, reduced strength, and enhanced ductility, while normalization resulted in a slight grain size increase with higher strength. Spheroidizing showed a significant decrease in grain size, yielding softer material with improved ductility.

This study addresses critical factors influencing steel microstructures, crucial for applications such as mooring chain steel in marine engineering equipment.

Sivam, S. S. S., Loganathan, G. B., Umasekar, V. G., Saravanan, K., Kumar, P. S., Raja, S. (2019). Study on Microstructural Characteristics and Mechanical Behaviour of AISI1050 Steel under Various Heat Treatments. International Journal of Vehicle Structures and Systems. doi.org/10.4273/ijvss.11.1.04

The highest product of tensile strength and elongation was achieved for Cr19 series duplex stainless steel following solution treatment for five minutes at 1050 °C. The microstructure analysis revealed an excellent transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) effect, primarily attributed to the existence of a more unstable austenite phase.

The results showed that higher quenching temperatures increased proto-austenite grain size, with a significant rise beyond 920 ℃.

The key to the success of PVD coatings is finding the right coating solution for a specific application. For tools and components subjected to friction and wear, the first step is analysis of the entire tribological system — the parts and their required materials, the desired surface finish, the environment, and wear mechanism.

The properties of steel can be improved in terms of fatigue, weldability, hardness, wear and corrosion resistance, ductility, and tensile strength by either alloy addition or heat treatment processes. This article discusses the effects of heat treatment on steel and the microstructural changes, the equipment and procedures used, and recent relevant studies.

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An increase in quenching temperature also resulted in smaller precipitates, while higher tempering temperatures increased precipitate size. The optimal comprehensive mechanical properties were achieved when quenched at 920 ℃ for 1 hour and tempered at 630 ℃ for 1.5 hours, yielding a tensile strength of 1233 MPa and a low-temperature impact value of 64 J.

The most obvious requirement for the heat treatment of steel is a furnace, usually designed to control the heating process in terms of temperature, humidity, and duration for steel to achieve desired mechanical and metallurgical properties.

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Jia, Y., Yin, X., Xu, Y., Wang, G. (2022). Effects of Heat Treatment on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of a Transformation-Induced Plasticity-Aided Economical Duplex Stainless Steel. Metals. doi.org/10.3390/met12122019

In a 2023 study on EN353 grade steel, researchers investigated the impact of heat treatment and microstructural changes on steel properties.

Yang, D. P., Du, P. J., Wu, D., Yi, H. L. (2021). The microstructure evolution and tensile properties of medium-Mn steel heat-treated by a two-step annealing process. Journal of Materials Science & Technology. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2020.10.032

The researchers predicted the continuous cooling transformation behavior of EN353 steel using JMat-Pro software, revealing phases like bainite, perlite, and carbide inclusions in microstructural examinations. Specifically, a specimen of size 40×40×40 mm underwent heat treatment at 870 °C for 2 hours, followed by isothermal heating at 600 °C for 73 minutes and air cooling.

Steel is one of the most extensively used alloys composed of iron and carbon and sometimes has other alloying elements for improved and enhanced quality for desired applications.

Sharma, L., & Chaubey, S. K. (2023). To Study the Microstructural Evolution of EN353 Steel under Different Heat Treatment Conditions. Archives of Metallurgy and Materials. doi.org/10.24425/amm.2023.142418

Taha graduated from HITEC University Taxila with a Bachelors in Mechanical Engineering. During his studies, he worked on several research projects related to Mechanics of Materials, Machine Design, Heat and Mass Transfer, and Robotics. After graduating, Taha worked as a Research Executive for 2 years at an IT company (Immentia). He has also worked as a freelance content creator at Lancerhop. In the meantime, Taha did his NEBOSH IGC certification and expanded his career opportunities.

Annealing is a heat treatment process designed to relieve internal stresses, improve machinability, and refine grain structure by heating steel to a critical temperature and then slowly cooling it with control, which allows a finer and more uniform grain structure formation.

Khan, Taha. 2024. Microstructural Changes in Steel Under Various Heat Treatments. AZoM, viewed 22 November 2024, https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=23443.

For instance, a 2019 study used transmission electron microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) for microstructure analysis. The researchers focused on enhancing the microstructure of economical duplex stainless steel with and without tungsten (W) addition to achieve high tensile strength, elongation, and pitting resistance.

In contrast to annealing, quenching is a rapid cooling process that involves immersing hot steel into a cooling medium, like water, oil, or polymer solutions, preventing equilibrium phase formations and resulting in a hardened microstructure characterized by martensite.

The coating properties, such as hardness, structure, chemical and temperature resistance, and adhesion, can be precisely controlled by the choice of metal and gas.

Coating cutting and forming tools with PVD used in machines for manufacturing products significantly increase their service life and performance compared with uncoated tools and save on valuable raw materials, minimizing the environmental impact and helping to preserve natural resources.

Khan, Taha. "Microstructural Changes in Steel Under Various Heat Treatments". AZoM. https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=23443. (accessed November 22, 2024).

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In the normalizing process, steel is heated to a critical temperature, held for a specific duration, and then allowed to cool in ambient air, refining the grain structure and enhancing its mechanical properties, making it particularly useful for improving its machinability.

Different heat treatment techniques, like annealing, normalizing, and tempering, are used for the heat treatment of steel, each having its unique advantage, allowing the steel to have the required properties in accordance with desired applications. These microstructural changes can be observed using analysis tools like SEM, TEM, XRD, and DMC.

Wang, T. (2023). Effect of Heat Treatment on Microstructure and Properties of Quenched and Tempered Steel with High Vanadium Contents. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series. IOP Publishing. doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2541/1/012056

Similarly, for analyzing microstructures of steel, several technologies can be implemented, including scanning electron microscopes (SEM), transmission electron microscopes (TEM), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), and Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC).

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An example of these heat treatment processes is covered in one study that investigated the microstructural changes in AISI 1050 steel under various heat treatments, including annealing, normalizing, and spheroidizing.

The study optimized the heat treatment process to control the comparison and distribution of the two phases (ferrite and austenite).

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Sometimes, after quenching, when the requirement is to have steel with reduced brittleness and enhanced toughness while maintaining a certain hardness, another process called tempering is done by controlled reheating quenched steel to a temperature below its critical point, which decomposes martensite into ferrite and cementite microstructures.

The microstructure of steel is composed of grains, each with its own crystal lattice structure. Heat treatment subjects steel to controlled heating and cooling processes to alter its microstructure, resulting in changes to hardness, strength, toughness, and other mechanical properties.

PVD (Physical vapor deposition) is a technique for creating extremely hard and very thin coatings of a few thousandths of a millimeter.

Khan, Taha. "Microstructural Changes in Steel Under Various Heat Treatments". AZoM. 22 November 2024. .

The three primary phases of steel microstructure are ferrite, cementite, and austenite, and their transformations play a pivotal role in determining the material's final characteristics.

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