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Hardness does not have one particular unit of measurement. Rather, it is described using index numbers. There are various hardness test and the index used to describe the hardness of a material, depends on the test used. Some common hardness tests are:

Due to their internal structures, martensitic steels are quite hard. These steels contain up to 1.2% carbon in addition to 12-17% chromium. Because of their relatively high carbon content, martensitic steels readily undergo hardening by heat treatment.

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The use of coolant when machining CFRP can either benefit or negatively affect the part depending on the application. The preferred coolant of choice for machining carbon fiber is typically using water or a water-soluble coolant. This is due to composites having a porous surface that could allow contaminates to enter the part itself. By using water, it prevents any issues after machining where adhesives or paint may need to be applied to the part that otherwise would not have adhered properly with contaminates present.

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Within the aerospace industry, drilling is the most common application in machining. Like milling, performing operations such as pecking may be preferred even with increased cycle time if it reduces any chances of error that result in scrapping of the part.

As the name implies, tool steels are regularly employed in the manufacture of tools such as cutting and drilling tools. They typically contain tungsten, cobalt, vanadium, and molybdenum. These tools can be hardened through cold working and also through heat treatment such as quenching.

Also known as mild steel, this contains 0.08 – 0.35% carbon. Because of their low carbon content, low carbon steels do not undergo steel hardening by quenching. However, they can be hardened by case hardening.

Austenitic steels typically contain iron, 18% chromium, 8% nickel, and less than 0.8% carbon. They are the most widely used type of stainless steels. Austenitic steels are non-magnetic and non-heat treatable. However, they readily undergo hardening through cold working.

Pearlite is different from martensite, as the pearlite structure forms from slow cooling. It is a lamellar arrangement of ferrite and cementite. At 723ºC the gamma-iron transforms from its FCC structure to alpha-iron, forcing iron carbide (cementite) out of the solution.

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In this test, a steel ball of known diameter is applied as the load on the surface of the material. The Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is then calculated using the formula in the table below. The diameter of the resulting impression is measured; together with the diameter of the steel ball, the BHN is calculated.

This is a differential heat treatment of the surface. The surface is quickly heated to prevent the centre of the material from being affected. The material is then undergoes much more rapid quenching. This way, a high level of martensite develops on the surface.

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This involves exposing the steel to a carbonaceous atmosphere at a high temperature. The carbonaceous atmosphere can be generated from high-quality coal or disassociated natural gas. The carbon atoms diffuse into the subsurface of the metal resulting in a high carbon case which upon subsequent quenching creates a hard wear-resistant martensitic surface.

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This is the hardest form of steel internal crystalline structure. The rapid cooling of austenitic iron form martensite. Due to its fast cooling rate, carbon is trapped in a solid solution causing the part to harden. It is extremely hard and brittle. Martensite has a needlelike acicular microstructure which appears as lenticular plates or platelets which divide and subdivide the grains of the parent phase, always touching but never crossing one another.  This structure occurs in a whole lot of alloy systems, including Fe-C, Fe-Ni-C.

In the Vickers hardness test, a square-based diamond pyramid is the load. This load is applied on the surface of the material for about 30 seconds. The area of the pyramidal impression is calculated and is then used to calculate the hardness of the metal.

For help mitigating the challenges of composite holemaking, read Overcoming Composite Holemaking Challenges and browse CoreHog’s offering of drills, specially engineered to mitigate all-too-common holemaking headaches. To achieve better finish and avoid delamination, it is recommended to utilize conventional milling over climb milling within composites contrary to what is recommended in metal machining.

In metal machining, the tool cuts away at material, forming chips. This is possible due to the formation of the metal having natural fracture and stress lines that can be wedged by the cutting tool to create a chip. Unlike metals, machining carbon fiber does not peel away material but rather fracture and break the fibers and resin.

Stainless steels are steels that contain 10 to 20% chromium as the main alloying element. They are very resistant to corrosion and erosion. Based on their structure and composition, stainless steels can be classified as:

Also, thin materials can easily be drilled with endmill, where a drill bit would grab and tear at the piece, the endmill just sizzles through it and leaves a ...

How do you calculate speed and feed? · Speed (RPM) = (Surface Feet per Minute x 3.82) / Diameter of the Tool · Feed Rate = RPM x Chip Load x Number of Teeth · RPM ...

Precipitation hardening steels are stainless steels containing chromium, nickel and other alloying elements such as copper, aluminium and titanium. These alloying elements allow the Stainless Steel to undergo hardening by solution and ageing heat treatment. They may be austenitic or martensitic.

When machining CFRP, the suggested running parameters are to have a high RPM with low feed rates. Feed rates will need to be adjusted to account for heat minimization, while RPMs may need to be dialed back to prevent excessive fraying, tearing, or splitting of fibers when cutting.

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Solution hardening is the addition of an alloying element to the base metal to create a solid solution. Upon solidification, the metal hardens due to the presence of the alloy atoms in the crystal lattice of the base metal. The size difference between the atoms of the solute and the solvent affect the effectiveness of solid-solutioning. If the solute atom is larger than the solvent atom, compressive strain fields ensue.  On the other hand, if the solvent atom is larger than the atoms of the solute, tensile strain fields occur. Solute atoms which distort the lattice into a tetragonal structure cause rapid hardening. An obvious example is the effect of cementite in steel.

High carbon steels contain above 0.5% carbon. These kinds of steels are very hardenable due to the high carbon content. They are typically hardened through quenching. However, this makes them quite brittle, hence, tempering is required.

Composite holemaking or drilling is found to be more challenging than milling carbon fiber. It generates more dust due to the drilling speed. Using specific tooling for composites will be crucial in effective drilling. When machining holes, the carbon fiber will relax, creating undersized holes which requires extensive adjustments that are best automated for efficiency.

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One benefit of vacuuming over coolant is the disposal process. After machining, the coolant/dust mix would require post-treatment to remove excess water before being transferred to a landfill. This would incur additional costs to the process which may cause some to lean towards vacuuming if heat is not an issue.

Unlike metal machining where tools may be utilized until they show signs of wear, this method would be unideal for CFRP as the highly expensive part could be ruined or damaged causing scrapping costs and time. It is good practice to take preventative measures by taking note of typical wear of your tools and using that information to set tool changes before it dulls. Noting tool changes and having high interval checks on cutting and dimension quality will aid in avoiding poor finish or scrapping. Some machines are equipped with tool life management systems which will greatly reduce the chances of having to scrap a part because of tool dullness.

The two options for dust extraction are using coolant (wet) or vacuuming (dry). Choosing between the two is dependent on the application, but mostly dictated by the size of the application. Smaller scale machining can be contained through vacuuming, but larger applications would require coolant as vacuuming a large area may be challenging. If a lot of heat will be generated, then it is necessary to have a water-soluble coolant. This would also benefit the use of diamond tooling as they will wear faster at lower temperatures in comparison to carbide tooling. Another would be the dust collection would remain contained with the liquid preventing any airborne exposure.

In quenching, also referred to as martensitic transformation, steel is heated above the critical temperature into the austenite range, held at this temperature, and then rapidly cooled or more often, quenched in water, oil or molten salt. For hypoeutectoid steels, the temperature for heating is 30-50ºC above the limit of austenite solubility line. For hypereutectoid steels, the temperature is above the eutectoid temperature. Quenching brings about martensitic transformation, which considerably hardens the steel. The hardened steel is, however, very brittle. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out tempering to relieve internal stresses and reduce brittleness. Maximum hardness is obtainable when the cooling rate in quenching is rapid enough to ensure full martensite transformation

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Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) is a collection of carbon fibers that, when bound together via resin, creates a material with a wide range of application possibilities. It’s strong, durable, and resistant to corrosion, making it an advantageous material for use in several advanced industries, including the aerospace and automotive industries. Despite its unique abilities, however, machining CFRP is not without its set of challenges, all of which machinists must be cognizant of to achieve desired results. Once CFRP is properly understood and the right cutting tool is selected for the job, the next step is to properly set running parameters for your application.

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Not all steels we see have the same composition. Precisely, there are different steel compositions for various purposes. The difference in steel boils down to their internal structures. As the need for stronger load-bearing metals increased, it became necessary to harden steel. Steel in its most basic form has relatively little strength and hardness. However, a modification of its internal structures, yields impressive results in its strength and hardness. Steel hardening simply involves processes designed to favour the formation of a particular internal structure over another. The internal structures of steel include:

Cold working typically alters the properties of steel or metals. This method of steel hardening is simply the deformation of a metal at a temperature below its melting point. Properties like yield strength, tensile strength and hardness increase, while plasticity and the ability of the material to deform decrease. Strain hardening, which results from the accumulation and entangling of dislocations during plastic deformation is an essential mode of strengthening elements. Though about 90% of energy during cold working is dissipated as heat, the remainder is stored in the crystal lattice, thereby increasing its internal energy.

This steels contain 0.35% – 0.5% carbon. They are stronger than low carbon steels, but are more difficult to work with. Medium carbon steels readily undergo hardening through quenching. When alloyed with traces of manganese, their hardenability increases. Medium carbon steels are also case hardened for applications where wear resistance is critical, such as in crankshafts.

There are various methods of carrying out steel hardening. These methods may be thermal, mechanical, chemical, or a combination of two or more of these. Thermal hardening processes are the most common steel hardening methods. They typically involve three primary stages, which are heating steel, holding it at a particular temperature, and cooling. The first stage generally involves heating the metal to a very high temperature enough to induce structural changes internally. This also makes it easier to work on the metal like changing its shape. The various methods of steel hardening are:

These steels typically contain less than 0.1% carbon, 12-17% chromium, and trace quantities of nickel. Ferritic steels are magnetic but cannot be hardened through heat treatment. Cold working is an effective method of hardening them.

Duplex steels have both ferritic and austenitic microstructures. These steels are hardened through heat treatment or surface hardening.

Many composite parts are unique in shape and size with custom molded designs that create a large initial cost prior to the machining stage. After the part is molded near to its shape, machining is often used to finish the part or drill holes where needed to finalize the part.

While every part is different, there is a method for reducing fraying, chipping, or delamination by cutting parallel to the fiber direction when possible. This can be like cutting along the grain of wood instead of cutting perpendicular or at an angle to the grain.

Carbon steels are alloys of iron, containing up to 2% carbon. They often contain trace amounts of alloying elements that enhance certain properties. Based on the actual amount of carbon contained, carbon steel can further be classified as low carbon steel, medium carbon steel, and high carbon steel.

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The Rockwell hardness was developed to measure the difference in hardness of steel before and after heat treatment. The penetrator can either be a steel ball or a diamond spheroconical penetrator. The hardness is measured by determining the depth of penetration into the material. Two loads are normally applied. A minor load to cause an initial impression and a major load to cause the main penetration.

With CFRP’s wide range of uses and desirable mechanical properties for its applications, comes the effect of its challenges in machining and high cost of scrapping. Refining this process will be essential for the growing demand of carbon fiber machining in the near future. For more information on CFRP, specifically related to material properties and tool selection, read In the Loupe’s complementary post “Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP): Material Properties & Tool Selection”.

The basic elements for steel are iron and carbon. However, the varying amounts of carbon and other alloying elements determine the properties of each grade.  The carbon content of any steel determines its hardenability as well as its maximum attainable hardness. This is especially true for quenching, as carbon encourages martensite formation.

This involves a compositional alteration of the surface zone. Fine particles are dispersed by allowing selected gases to react with and diffuse into the steel. In this process, steel is heat-treated to obtain a tempered martensitic structure. It is then exposed to an atmosphere of ammonia at around 550ºC for 12-36 hours. Small alloying elements like Al or Crenhance the formation of a fine dispersion of nitrides, which remarkably increase the surface hardness and wear resistance. This composition of nitrides is much more superior to martensite in respect of hardness.

Being that chips are not formed when machining CFRP, and instead, the material is fractured, it creates dust that can spread throughout the air and other surfaces. Not only does this cause hazardous conditions for anyone nearby who may inhale the dust, but the dust is also conductive, which can ruin electronics. To avoid these issues, two different extraction methods can be used depending on the needs of the application.

Due to carbon fiber’s abrasion on the cutting tools, a rapid decrease in cutting quality will occur as soon as the tool begins to dull. Fibers will be grabbed instead of fractured, causing fraying and damage to the part. Therefore, tool life should be vigilantly monitored to replace the tool before reaching the point of dullness.

In addition to carbon content, chemical composition is another factor that affects the hardenability of steels.  Alloy steels contain varying amounts of copper, nickel, manganese, boron, and vanadium. These steels are very hardenable through quenching. This is because the alloying elements delay austenite decomposition, thus forming martensite readily in alloy steels. Solid solution hardening is also an effective, common way of hardening alloy steels.

Steel hardening is usually carried out on finished products and not on raw materials. In CNC machining, steel hardening is a post-machining process carried out on machined parts. This is done this way for a number of reasons. First, it is not economical to harden a whole block of steel, since a large percentage of it will be removed in the machining process. Also, hardened steel is far more difficult to machine, as the hardness of the workpiece makes tool penetration more difficult.

As the name implies, case hardening creates a hard surface, necessary to resist wear in applications such as crankshafts, bearings and the like. This method of steel hardening, generally involves one of three approaches:

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Austenite is the next hardest steel internal structure after martensite. It refers to iron alloys in which the iron is gamma-iron. It usually occurs below 1500ºC and above 723ºC.

Steel is one of the most essential and iconic metals on earth. From a combination of iron and carbon arose a robust, versatile and vastly used alloy. From buildings, infrastructure, water vessels, automobiles, machinery, and appliances to simple utensils like forks and spoons, its applications seem to have no bounds. This is due to the numerous desirable properties which steel has. One of these properties is hardness, the ability of a material to resist deformation induced by indentation, impact, or abrasion. However, the natural hardness of steel is not always sufficient for specific engineering applications, such as load-bearing structures and engine parts. This is why methods have been developed to increase the hardness alongside other properties of steel significantly. These methods are known as steel hardening.

Having a set process that is consistent and reliable is important in helping to prevent scrapping. Eliminating human error with machines that can monitor the entire process while automating tool changes when tools are worn, avoids issues before they can happen. A key factor is ensuring the setup is correct, having the right tooling, tool path, and coolant option to perform the operation effectively and accurately. With some parts serving critical functions and with a high cost, there is no exception for poor finish or incorrect cuts emphasizing the importance of having a procedure that gets the job done the right way.

This hardness test is specifically for thin sheets or very brittle material. A pyramidal diamond point creates a very small indentation on the material. Next, the indentation made is studied using a microscope and used to calculate the hardness of the material.